The Colonial Era of Somalia
The Colonial Era of Somalia began in the late 19th century when European powers partitioned the African continent during the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885. This division led to the establishment of three main colonial territories: British Somaliland, Italian Somaliland, and French Somaliland (now Djibouti). Each power pursued its own objectives, often at the expense of Somali sovereignty and unity.
Partitioning of Somali Territories
British Somaliland
In 1887, the British established a protectorate over northern Somalia, primarily to secure trade routes to India and access to the strategic port of Aden. The British focused on minimal governance, largely leaving local clan structures intact while securing grazing lands for their livestock trade.
Effects on the People: The British approach to indirect rule left much of the day-to-day governance to local clan elders, particularly from the Isaaq and Dhulbahante tribes. While this preserved traditional structures, it also meant that development and public services were minimal. Education opportunities were limited, with only a few mission schools established in major towns. Many Somalis in British Somaliland were forced to migrate to nearby territories, including Ethiopia, for better opportunities.
Economic Impact: The economy of British Somaliland was heavily focused on livestock trade, primarily exporting sheep, goats, and camels to the Arabian Peninsula. Infrastructure development was sparse, with most investments centered around the port of Berbera. This neglect of inland areas contributed to economic disparities between urban and rural populations.
Italian Somaliland
The Italians established control over southern Somalia in 1889, marking the beginning of Italian Somaliland. Their administration emphasized agricultural development, introducing large plantations for bananas and sugarcane, often exploiting local labor. This region became a focal point for Italian settlers, who established trading posts and sought to expand Italian influence in East Africa.
By Walker, Emery – “Somaliland” in the Encyclopædia Britannica 11th ed., Vol. 25, Public Domain
Effects on the People: The Italian administration introduced forced labor policies, requiring Somalis, particularly from the Hawiye and Rahanweyn tribes, to work on agricultural plantations under harsh conditions. Land confiscation was common, with fertile areas near rivers allocated to Italian settlers. These practices disrupted traditional farming practices and caused widespread resentment among the local population.
Economic Impact: Italian Somaliland became one of the largest exporters of bananas in the world, earning it the nickname “the Banana Colony.” While this boosted the colonial economy, local Somalis saw little benefit. Infrastructure such as roads and railways was developed primarily to serve Italian settlers and facilitate exports, rather than improve the livelihoods of Somali communities.
French Somaliland
The French claimed the region now known as Djibouti in 1896, prioritizing its strategic location near the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait. French Somaliland became a critical refueling station for ships traveling between Europe and Asia. The region maintained its economic importance while being culturally distinct from the other Somali territories.
Effects on the People: French Somaliland’s small population faced heavy taxation to fund the colony’s infrastructure projects. The French administration often interacted with the Issa and Gadabursi tribes, who played key roles in trade and labor. However, the French prioritized settlers over local Somalis in economic and social policies. Education and healthcare services were primarily provided to French citizens, with limited access for the Somali population.
Economic Impact: Djibouti’s port became a major hub for international trade, but the profits were largely controlled by French companies. The construction of the Djibouti-Addis Ababa railway further integrated the region into the colonial economy, but most jobs created were low-paying and reserved for the local population. This led to significant economic inequality between French settlers and Somalis.
Resistance Movements
The Dervish Movement
The Dervish Movement was founded in 1899 by Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, a Somali nationalist and religious leader. Frustrated by the interference of European colonial powers and their local allies, Hassan sought to unite Somali clans under a single Islamic state and resist foreign domination.
How the Dervish Movement Started
- Origins in Buhoodle: The Dervish Movement began in the town of Buhoodle, where Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan first gathered his followers. The area, known for its strategic location and strong clan support, became a hub for organizing resistance. Hassan’s fiery sermons and calls for jihad resonated deeply with the local Dhulbahante clan, who became some of his earliest supporters.
- Religious Inspiration: Hassan, a member of the Salihiya order of Sufism, was influenced by Islamic teachings that opposed colonialism and foreign interference. He positioned the movement as both a spiritual and nationalist struggle, framing it as a defense of Islam and Somali sovereignty.
- Formation of the Dervish State: By 1905, Hassan had established a centralized state in the interior of Somalia, with Taleh as its capital. The state maintained a standing army and conducted trade with neighboring regions to fund its operations.
By W. A. MacFadyen – The Geographical Journal Vol. 78, No. 2 (Aug., 1931), CC0
Battles of the Dervish Movement
- Battle of Gumburu (1903): The Dervishes ambushed British forces, inflicting heavy casualties. This victory emboldened the movement and increased Hassan’s popularity.
- Battle of Dul Madoba (1913): One of the most notable battles in the history of the Dervish Movement, this confrontation occurred in British Somaliland. Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan’s forces, consisting of approximately 2,000 spearmen and 750 riflemen, ambushed a British expeditionary force led by Colonel Richard Corfield. The Dervishes, with strong support from Dhulbahante fighters, decisively defeated the British.Outnumbered and outmaneuvered, the British forces suffered heavy casualties, including the death of Colonel Corfield. Following the victory, Hassan composed a poem celebrating the event:*”Do not be disheartened by defeat or emboldened by victory; All of it is a test, for life is fleeting. Corfield has fallen; his soul has departed. Let this serve as a reminder to the oppressors.”This battle solidified the Dervish Movement’s reputation as a formidable resistance force against colonial rule.
- Skirmishes with Italians and Ethiopians: The Dervishes also clashed with Italian forces in the south and Ethiopian armies near the borders. These conflicts highlighted Hassan’s ambition to create a unified Somali state.
Defeat of the Dervish Movement
- Economic Strain: The prolonged conflict drained the resources of the Dervish State. Blockades by colonial powers disrupted trade and supply lines.
- British Airstrikes (1920): The British Royal Air Force launched air raids on Dervish strongholds in Taleh. This marked one of the first uses of air power in warfare and led to the collapse of the Dervish State.
- Disbandment: Following the airstrikes, Hassan’s forces were scattered, and the Dervish Movement ceased to function as an organized resistance.
End of Colonial Rule
British Somaliland
British Somaliland gained independence on June 26, 1960, after decades of local advocacy for self-governance. It united with Italian Somaliland five days later to form the Somali Republic.
Italian Somaliland
Italian Somaliland achieved independence on July 1, 1960, joining British Somaliland to create a unified Somali state.
French Somaliland
French Somaliland’s path to independence was more protracted. After multiple referendums and continued French control, the territory gained independence as Djibouti on June 27, 1977.